Force Main Discharge Elevation

Force Main Discharge Elevation

Force Main Discharge Elevation

07/21/26

“How can we quantify the height a force main must pump to?”

Force mains pump wastewater to overcome elevational or frictional differences. The height they must pump to is called the Force Main Discharge Elevation. Wastewater does not need pumping to move once it reaches the force main discharge elevation since it will go downhill with gravity. The force main discharge elevation does not need to be above the pump inlet since the pump might be present to work against frictional losses only.

Force Mains

Force Mains

Force Mains

07/20/26

“What’s so special about pipes that carry wastewater using a pump?”

It’s typical for sewers to carry wastewater using gravity. However, sometimes the sewer needs to carry wastewater against gravity using pumps. Pipes that carry wastewater using pumps are called Force Mains. Force mains are typically filled due to pressurization.

Pump Curve Duty Point

Pump Curve Duty Point

Pump Curve Duty Point

07/19/26

“What are the settings at which a pump will operate when connected to a piping system?”

Pumps have their own pump curves that measure the correlation between flow and head, and piping systems have system curves that demonstrate their relation between head and required flow. The intersection point of these curves is called the Pump Curve Duty Point, and is the point at which pumps will operate.

Dirty Rain

Dirty Rain

Dirty Rain

07/18/26

“What happens when raindrops hit highly polluted air?”

Nearly everywhere on planet Earth experiences rain. Rain interacts with everything in the atmosphere, including any pollutants flying around. Raindrops can capture particulate matter such as ash, dust, and smoke. This takes the pollutants out of the atmosphere and onto the ground, where they create a dirty layer. This Dirty Rain acts similarly to a wet scrubber, and commonly occurs in highly polluted parts of the world. Transporting the particulate matter out of the atmosphere can temporarily increase air quality.

Dammed River Reservoirs

Dammed River Reservoirs

Dammed River Reservoirs

07/17/26

“How can we dam rivers to create reservoirs?”

People can create reservoirs to store water. One way is to install a dam over a river, bringing its flow to a near halt and practically turning the water body into a lake. These Dammed River Reservoirs can hold vast amounts of water throughout the year. Water is typically still let out through controlled release. Dams can release enough water to generate hydropower. Dammed river reservoirs can protect against floods by concentrating water upstream and releasing only a paltry amount downstream. Dammed river reservoirs can be environmentally catastrophic (especially for Indigenous livelihoods), and people may remove dams to restore the natural environment. Damned river reservoirs are also liable to sedimentation buildup and algae blooms from the stopped flow.

Reservoirs

Reservoirs

Reservoirs

07/16/26

“How can we create giant reserves of water for later use?”

Water is one of the most fundamental components of human life. Consequentially, water needs to be stored for people to avoid catastrophe. Reservoirs are large water storage bodies to fill this need. Reservoirs can be natural (like lakes) or artificial (like dammed rivers). Reservoirs can also release water to assist drought-stricken communities.

Cone of Depression

Cone of Depression

Cone of Depression

07/14/26

“How does a water table’s shape change when a pump is activated?”

Pumps can suck water out of aquifers. When a pump activates in an unconfined aquifer, it creates lower pressure near its mouth, causing the water table portion near the well to bend towards it. Because the water table portion further from the table is less affected, it will bend less, and a negative slope will form. Since the water table is affected equally in all directions, this slope will be circular and form what’s called a Cone of Depression. The slope of the cone of depression is contingent upon the pumping rate, pumping time, aquifer conductivity, and water recharge. 

Image credit: https://upload.wikimedia.org/

Net Primary Productivity

Net Primary Productivity

Net Primary Productivity

07/13/26

“How do we quantify the rate of new biomass by photosynthesizers after accounting for keeping themselves alive?”

Primary productivity measures the rate of new biomass growth by photosynthesizers. However, these organisms will need to use some of the energy they receive from the sun to keep themselves alive. Consequently, these organisms will only have the Net Primary Productivity, or biomass growth rate, accounting for the energy used to keep themselves alive. Photosynthesizing organisms use the former to grow themselves, and the latter to sustain themselves.